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Astronomy and geology: the first deals with myriad, enormous, unreachable objects seen at great distances and at very low resolution; the other investigates one tiny (by comparison) object, Earth, at close range, from planetary scale down to almost atomic resolution in the laboratory. Planetary Science, studying solar system objects, to some extent bridges the gap between astronomy and geology. Astronomers mostly look up; geologists mostly look down. This paper lists cases where studies in one of those fields have contributed to understanding in the other. The central focus is on investigations of the Cretaceous and Paleogene pelagic Scaglia limestone in the Italian Apennine Mountains where geologic studies bear on five classes of solar system objects. The classes are separated by three orders of magnitude in size: the Moon-forming impactor, bolides that form craters on Earth, meteorites, meteor-forming grains, and extraterrestrial dust. The paper closes by calling attention to LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, in which astronomical discoveries made by looking down have yielded a geological discovery done by looking up. LIGO has detected distant collisions involving black holes and neutron stars by measuring infinitesimal distortions of the Earth, which in turn have shown that at least some of Earth's supply of heavy elements has been created by collisions of pairs of neutron stars—a major contribution to geochemistry and cosmochemistry.

We take a fresh look at the viability of physically realistic extremal black holes within our (non-supersymmetric) low energy physics. By incorporating prefactors and volume effects, we show that Schwinger discharge in charge neutral environments is far more efficient than commonly assumed. Using ionisation estimates for neutral hydrogen, we obtain a new and robust lower bound on the mass of an extremal electrically charged black hole, exceeding <inline-formula> <mml:math><mml:mrow><mml:msup><mml:mn>10</mml:mn><mml:mrow><mml:mn>14</mml:mn></mml:mrow></mml:msup><mml:msub><mml:mi>M</mml:mi><mml:mo>⊙</mml:mo></mml:msub></mml:mrow></mml:math></inline-formula>. For magnetic black holes, we compute the Lee─Nair─Weinberg instability and revisit early Universe pair creation rates, including singular instantons that substantially enhance production, to demonstrate that the extreme charges required for stability are cosmologically implausible. Finally, we speculate that an extremal Kerr black hole could shed angular momentum via superradiant scattering from the stochastic gravitational wave background. Taken together, our results provide a unified picture that extremal black holes are unlikely to persist in our Universe.